The project entitled “Homo ludens” in a medieval town - archaeological evidence of an amusement was carried out in 2011-2013 with the objective of collecting archaeological data necessary to describe the forms of entertainment observed in the towns of the southern Baltic coast in the Late Middle Ages. In order to do so, it was necessary to conduct archival research in institutions that had organised excavations in the region. Within the framework of the project, the team visited Vilnius, Klaipeda, Riga and Tallin, which allowed us to build an extensive database of artefacts kept at local museums and historical institutes. The image that emerged was of a unified nature of entertainment in the towns of the southern Baltic coast. The frequently repeated thesis about the cultural unity of the region in the late Middle Ages was thus shown to be corroborated also by evidence related to play.

Since play and toys are inextricably linked to children, the next stage of the project was designed to involve archaeological experiments with their participation. Three such events were organised in the summer of 2012: one in Szczecin (Szczecin Incubator for Culture), one in Wolin during the Experimental Archaeology Workshops, and one in Police-Jasienica during the Augustinian Fair. Altogether, more than a hundred children aged 2 to 12 took part and their role was to play with replicas of medieval toys. Owing to the observations carried out during these experiments, the team was able to confirm or debunk several hypotheses concerning the use of individual objects in play found in literature.

The results of archival research and experimental observations were presented and discussed during the Workshop of Childhood Archaeology organised in November 2012 in Małkocin (in the commune of Stargard Szczeciński) and attended by participants from Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Lithuania and Latvia. During the two-day meeting, young researchers and experienced scholars exchanged their insights on the way children lived in the past. A tangible product of the meeting was a book published in 2013, entitled Child and Childhood in the Light of Archaeology, entirely devoted to the subject of children, with chapters written by workshop participants.

Okładka książki wydanej w ramach projektu All these steps were intended to bring the principal investigator closer to the primary objective of the project, i.e. using the results of archival research, experiments and debates for the purposes of a doctoral thesis entitled “Ludic Culture in the Towns of the Southern Baltic Coast in the Late Middle Ages. An Archaeological Study”.

The realm of medieval play and entertainment continues to strike us as somewhat enigmatic today. This is mainly due to the scarcity of information available in written sources. Combining archaeological artefacts and experiments designed to study the actions and behaviours of actual children in contact with specific toy items helped shed more light on that world. The use of experiment to explain behaviour in archaeology is a completely novel approach. What follows from the analysis of collected artefacts is that the towns of the region resembled one another also in terms of toys and play, which lends further support to the claim about the cultural unity of the region in the late Middle Ages. The project is also of great social importance in that it places an emphasis on the features we share with our ancestors – and play is no doubt one of them.

Many living organisms have a symmetrical structure, but their symmetry is usually not perfect and individual specimens may deviate from it to varying degrees. On account of its distinct bilateral body symmetry and easy access to a large number of individuals of known origin, the honey bee is an ideal species to study the phenomenon.

Bee colonies normally comprise tens of thousands of worker bees with kinship ties that can be easily discovered and controlled. Importantly, bees have many symmetrical organs, such as two pairs of membranous wings, which lend themselves to simple measurement because of their flat surfaces and easily discernible vein patterns. In honey bees, right wings and left wings are never ideally symmetrical in terms of shape and size. Even though the differences between them are relatively small, precise studies on large groups have confirmed that the right wing tends to be larger than the left. This kind of asymmetry, similar to right-handedness in humans, is known as directional asymmetry as opposed to fluctuating asymmetry, where the differences between the two sides are random and result in the same average size. Asymmetry may grow owing to the detrimental impact of the environment during larval development; for this reason, it is a good indicator of environmental quality. Knowing this may prove particularly useful today, when the mortality of bee colonies is on the rise. Unlike fluctuating asymmetry, directional asymmetry has not yet been extensively studied. It may be surprising to observe it in the wings of the honey bee, since simple intuition suggests that symmetrical wings should be much better for flying. There are two possible explanations. One holds that while bees would indeed fly more efficiently with symmetrical wings, detrimental conditions during development make ideal symmetry difficult to achieve. The other interprets wing asymmetry as an adaptation to the very exigencies of flight.

The research team has developed a new automatic wing measurement method that relies on computer image analysis to measure a wide range of traits in a large group of bees. In general, larger bees have been shown to be less asymmetrical. Currently, the team is investigating wing asymmetry in specimens raised in optimal and stressful conditions to determine the impact of pesticides, low temperatures, inbreeding, and a number of other factors. Preliminary findings suggest that wing asymmetry is found in honey bees independent of the presence of environmental stressors. Further research should provide additional evidence concerning the influence of asymmetry on flight.

Brewing is one of the oldest biotechnological food processing methods in the world. Because of the popularity of beer as a product, the brewing industry ranks among the most vibrant branches of the food sector. As science advances and consumer awareness grows, the issue of using new raw materials and optimising individual processes becomes increasingly important.

Photo by Michał Łepecki The efficiency of the processes used in breweries depends primarily on the selection of raw materials and various technological parameters. To ensure the final product’s highest possible quality, it is necessary to develop new technologies and devices, as well as employ new raw materials or accessories. In particular, this applies to new recipes for obtaining wort. Large-scale technology trials should be preceded by lab experiments, which allow many variants to be compared and contrasted, while keeping the conditions of wort production stable and constant. As the market becomes more and more saturated with beer products, craft beers and sophisticated recipes progressively increase their market share. And it’s not only craft breweries – large industrial breweries are also interested in innovative raw materials and technologies. Introducing malt substitutes or unique raw materials into recipes often involves changing the basic physico-chemical properties of wort (such as pH, extract, colour, turbidity or mineral content). Experiments have also been carried out to completely replace barley malt with non-malted substitutes (e.g. barley, spelt, wheat, corn). Such modifications are introduced for economic reasons (cheaper resources) and/or questions of taste and health (achieving new, better features of the final product).

Innovative lautering solutions aim to improve current methods of separating hot precipitates. Most breweries in the world are equipped with a special tank, usually referred to as a whirlpool vat. A commonly-used solution, whirlpool vats are energy-saving and efficient. Hence the attempts to further increase their efficiency by slightly tweaking their structure. Wort is poured into the vat through a hole tangential to its wall, which makes a cone of hot precipitate form at the bottom, a process assisted by whirling. The phenomenon occurs naturally and spontaneously, and is known as the “tea cup effect”, first described by Albert Einstein in 1926. Cutting-edge computer image simulation and analysis methods allow us to understand it better.

More recently, experimental studies of liquid flow in whirlpool vats have been conducted on a broader scale, using state-of-the-art measurement methods, such as particle image velocimetry (PIV). PIV is especially useful for the analysis of the flow velocity field where a measurement sensor cannot be inserted into the tank. Measurement relies on particles that disperse laser light, allowing the motion of individual particles to be detected.

The idea to analyse the technological aspects of lautering and introduce structural changes was borne out of projects conducted with entrepreneurs, research centres (in Poland and abroad) and breweries (craft and industrial). Considering the current state of knowledge in the field, the research topic is highly innovative and its solutions and conclusions will facilitate the production of clear wort, regardless of the raw materials employed.

Photo by Michał Łepecki Experiments conducted within the framework of the project allowed us to show that using a non-malted substitute (barley or spelt) extends saccharification and mash filtration times, reduces wort volume, and simplifies filtration efficiency, as compared with 100% barley malt samples. Adding non-malted spelt (more than 15% batch content) considerably increases the colour intensity of congress wort. On the other hand, the chemical composition of water (deionized or process water) and a greater percentage share of non-malted grain (barley or spelt) in the batch (to 30%) considerably increases the mass of the hot precipitate and the concentration of Mn2+ ions both in malted worts and those with a 30% barley content; the concentration of these ions drops significantly in hot precipitates. Using a partition as a structural modification in a whirlpool vat reduces the time for which primary flow can be observed, with occurs at a higher velocity, closer to the centre of the bottom of the vat. A partition shaped like an isosceles triangle is the most effective at improving whirling conditions in a tangentially filled vat when placed near the bottom at a 270° angle with respect to the inlet. The most advantageous structural solution contributes to improving the conditions of wort lautering (separating the hot precipitate) and allows a more compact precipitate cone to be obtained in the centre the bottom of the vat.

Slags left over from metallurgical processes may seem to hold little appeal as a research topic: they do not contain any precious elements such as gold, platinum or REEs; usually have a cryptocrystalline structure; and cannot help us reconstruct the history of the Earth. On close inspection, however, they can be shown to provide an inexhaustible source of research material that encompasses a number of important aspects. On account of their unique chemical and petrographic composition, as well as their crystallisation conditions, slags constitute a large-scale geochemical and petrographic experiment; they contain extremely rare minerals; their weathering affects the surrounding environment, including soil, water, and organic matter; and they can serve as a basis for reconstructing the history of the smelting process.

Comparing the phase composition of original metallurgical slags and their synthetic equivalents after high-temperature experiments with a controlled cooling time. This is where the issue of crystallisation temperature comes into play. Temperature is vital to the extent that one cannot exhaustively describe slags without its precise measurement. Temperature affects the physical parameters of the material, its phase composition, chemical content and the speciation of elements between individual phases. If the temperature of an alloy is not known, it is impossible to describe the reactions that occur between the alloy and the phases or the separation of elements into the alloy and the solids. Trying to reconstruct the smelting process without it also lacks a solid basis. This is why it is essential to develop a precise and accurate method of temperature measurement. The techniques in popular use today often overestimate the results due to the slag’s complex composition or have important limitations that make them impossible to apply in practice.

The experimental method proposed by the project provides an answer to these limitations and allows the temperature of slag crystallisation to be estimated with the greatest possible accuracy. The approach is based on a multivariate analysis of similarities between slags produced experimentally in furnaces and those sampled from the environment. The analysis takes account of their phase composition, the morphological features of crystals and the speciation of elements between the phases and the glaze. By properly programming the furnace, it is possible to heat the alloy to nearly 1600°C, and also to simulate different storage conditions, such as fast, slow or mixed alloy cooling.

It is also worth noting that the methodology in question does not apply exclusively to slags, but can equally well be applied to natural rocks that crystallise under high temperature and low pressure conditions, i.e. most volcanic rocks.

By using an experimental approach, we were able to arrive at a precise qualitative and quantitative reconstruction of parageneses based on melilites, pseudowollastonites/wollastonites, plagioclases and glass in tested slags. Our comparative analyses of the different temperature conditions, phase composition, chemical content, and mineral chemistry show that the data for slags highly correlates with those for natural rocks, and especially the melilitolites from Colle Fabbri (Italy). Our experiments also provided key data on the crystallisation process. For the tested material, crystallisation was observed to begin in the 1250-1300°C temperature range; the impact of the thermal gradient on phase differentiation was limited, but played an important role in the disappearance of the original glass. At the same time, less than 84 hours were required for a well-differentiated mineral complex to develop, with crystals of up to several millimetres.

Our study also demonstrated the importance of reactions between the alloy and the refractories during zinc smelting. These reactions enrich refractories with lead, sodium, potassium, zinc and arsenic, while pushing out iron, magnesium and calcium. As a result, temperature relationships and gravitational separation lead to the emergence of zones rich in lead and arsenic, which lower the solidus in the system and cause the corrosion of the refractories. The elements released from the latter, notably silicon and aluminium, combined with lead, arsenic and other incompatible elements to create a glaze with a high potential for the emission of potentially toxic elements.

The experimental study also found its application in archaeology, allowing the lead smelting process in the 12th-century metalworks in Łosień and the 16th-17th-century metalworks in Sławków to be reconstructed, as well as the gold foundry of Złoty Stok, dating back to the 15th-17th centuries.

Attempts to use electric motors to power automotive vehicles have been made for many years and intensified especially in the times of successive fuel crises (for instance, General Motors presented a technologically advanced EV1 model as far back as the mid-1990s). European car manufacturers, however, failed to rise to the challenge of designing and implementing the production of electric cars at the time.

Electric Controlled Permanent Magnet Excited Synchronous Machine: a) model, b) magnetic field distribution

Nearly all automotive companies have by now added electric cars to their portfolio. More and more models are being developed, but vehicles of this type still continue to be treated as a technological novelty. This is a misconception, since electric drives have competed with diesel engines since the dawn of the automotive industry. As far back as the end of the 19th century, customers were able to purchase horseless vehicles equipped with electric motors, and the 100km/h speed barrier was first broken in 1899 by an electric vehicle: the Belgian La Jamais Contente.

The chief obstacle to mastering electric car technology has to do with the source of electricity, which puts very rigorous demands on other components of the system (primarily the engine). For this reason, electric engine design must take account of the associated limitations. The power unit must also be optimally adjusted to the standard driving cycle. This means that the weight and size of the engine should be reduced to the minimum, without compromising the processing of energy across the entire range of rotational speeds.

Electric Controlled Permanent Magnet Excited Synchronous Machine Electric motors currently in use in hybrid and electric cars have many important drawbacks; their dimensions, and also power systems, must be considerably resized to guarantee adequate torque at the outset (at small rotational speeds). The parameters of the currently preferred solutions using permanent magnets are also unsatisfactory, especially at high rotational speeds. In order to neutralize these effects, various techniques for reducing magnetic flux in the machine have been introduced. The conventional approach to the problem involves regulating the excitation current so as to generate a magnetic field opposite to the field of the magnets and thus reduce the latter. This complicates the system and makes it larger.

Electric Controlled Permanent Magnet Excited Synchronous Machine In order to address these issues, our research project, conducted within the framework of the OPUS 9 funding scheme, has developed a completely new high-speed permanent magnet machine, which allows magnetic flux to be regulated (the Electric Controlled Permanent Magnet Excited Synchronous Machine, ECPMSM). It is a combination of a disc-type machine with a transverse flux machine, characterised by the presence of an additional magnetic excitation system, and also high efficiency across the entire spectrum of rotational speeds and loads. The machine boasts a large starting torque and its rotations are easy to regulate. These properties meet all the current requirements of the automotive industry, such as high environmental standards, economic efficiency and small size. Mastering the production technology for an electric engine of this kind would reduce the technological gap that separates our country from developed European ones in this major sector of the economy.

Our research under OPUS 9 involved building and testing several prototypes of innovative permanent-magnet machines with flux regulation. Our results have been published in several dozen articles and presented at more than ten conferences. We also took out 4 national patents on our hybrid machine solutions.

Growing interest in aerated foods has led food producers and researchers to explore the use of hydrocolloids, which serve as thickening agents and, at the same time, help control body mass. Hydrocolloids exhibit a variety of properties and have an important impact on the final product; their mixtures allow a variety of new, attractive features to be obtained thanks to the effects of synergy. Aeration is becoming increasingly common, but the process of introducing air with a well-controlled bubble size is troublesome and difficult to replicate, especially with simple techniques such as mixing or whipping. This is why it is so important to investigate the impact of the final structure on the properties of the end product.

The primary objective of the research project has been to determine the influence of the final structure of lyophilised strawberry gels on the physical and sensory properties of the end product. An objective of the project has been to develop a variety of lyophilised strawberry gels with the use of different hydrocolloids and various aeration times.

The type of hydrocolloid used has shown to have an impact on the structure and properties of the end product, but aeration time has not been found to matter, which has indicated that the structure of the gel has been largely created during lyophilisation rather than aeration. Lyophilised gels with low-methylated pectin or a mixture of xanthan and guar gums often have had similar, acceptable sensory properties, but the delicate structure of the gum-based gels makes it difficult to obtain their dried form.

The research project has led to the conclusion that the use of low-methylated pectin in the production of lyophilized strawberry gels guarantees the highest sensory and instrumental quality of the end product

The research project examines the masterpieces of Gothic architecture and their vaults, focusing on their documentation, conservation and reconstruction based on rigorous scientific premises. It consists of a theoretical section (including architectural and historical analyses of the vaults in question), followed by a study of iconographic sources.

The main part of the project investigated practical issues related to the historical techniques of vault construction and traditional building methods based on simple geometry. The author studied and analysed material relics, performing digital measurements of a number of preserved monuments in Gdańsk, Malbork and Kraków. An essential source that provided an important new insight into the construction methods in question was an old 17th print by Bartl Ranisch, Beschreibung aller Kirchen-Gebäude der Stadt Dantzig, rediscovered after the Second World War in the archives of the town of Gdańsk. The work contains pioneering documentation of all the churches in Gdańsk at the time, along with a detailed description of the manner in which their vaults had been erected; it is illustrated with nearly 50 engraved plans and geometric diagrams of various patterns. The author compared these historical drawings of the Gothic vaults of Gdańsk with the structures still in place and prepared a new interpretation of their geometry in the form of several virtual models. Vault shapes were copied following the “instructions” of the old print, but in accordance with modern techniques and contemporary conventions (including orthogonal projections, rabattements, and cross-sections). They were also expanded to include legible images based on axonometric procedures and perspective, relying on the methods of photorealistic visualisation and simplified, schematic imaging.

The objective of the project was to give a detailed explanation of the manner in which these vaults were modelled. Vault models come in different forms: elementary “wire” models that depict the axes of the ribs, systems of ribbed fittings, and full forms with massive ribs and fields. The phases of creating virtual models closely mirrored the sequence of stages followed at an actual construction site.

Historical techniques were then experimentally applied to the reconstruction of the ruined Gothic vaults in the church of the Castle of Malbork. Adapted to the relics in the interior (remains of the structure and furnishings), the concept stood up to rigorous scrutiny. The method may thus be useful in the conservation and reconstruction of many other Gothic buildings.